Wind Resource Assessment : A Practical Guide to Developing a Wind Project

[BOOK DESCRIPTION]
This is a practical, authoritative guide to the siting and installation of a high-quality wind energy project, providing analytical methods for assessing the wind resource. The first half of the book describes the several stages of carrying out a wind-monitoring campaign, addressing such topics as worker safety, data security, and advanced remote sensing techlogy. The second describes the assessment methods. It also addresses cutting-edge research topics such as possible impacts of climate change on wind resources and the strengths and weaknesses of various atmospheric modeling approaches. Professionals in industry such as planners, managers, and installers as well as resource analysts, federal program managers, and students will rely on this resource.

[TABLE OF CONTENTS]

Preface                                            xv
    1 Introduction                                 1  (12)
      1.1 Where do Winds Come From?                2  (2)
      1.2 Key Characteristics of the Wind          4  (2)
        1.2.1 The Temporal Dimension               4  (1)
        1.2.2 The Spatial Dimension                5  (1)
        1.2.3 Other Characteristics of the Wind    6  (1)
        Resource
      1.3 Wind Power Plants                        6  (3)
      1.4 Purpose and Organization of this Book    9  (1)
      1.5 Questions for Discussion                 10 (3)
        Suggestions for Further Reading            11 (2)
  PART 1 Wind Monitoring                           13 (102)
    2 Overview of a Wind Resource Assessment       15 (8)
    Campaign
      2.1 Site Identification                      16 (1)
      2.2 Resource Monitoring                      16 (4)
        2.2.1 Wind Monitoring Campaign Design      17 (1)
        2.2.2 Measurement Plan                     18 (1)
        2.2.3 Monitoring Strategy                  18 (1)
        2.2.4 Quality Assurance Plan               19 (1)
      2.3 Wind Resource Analysis                   20 (3)
        2.3.1 Data Validation                      20 (1)
        2.3.2 Characterizing the Observed Wind     20 (1)
        Resource
        2.3.3 Estimating the Hub Height Resource   21 (1)
        2.3.4 Climate Adjustment                   21 (1)
        2.3.5 Wind Flow Modeling                   21 (1)
        2.3.6 Uncertainty in Wind Resource         21 (1)
        Assessment
        2.3.7 Project Design and Energy            21 (1)
        Production
        Suggestions for Further Reading            22 (1)
    3 Siting a Wind Project                        23 (14)
      3.1 Site Selection                           23 (2)
      3.2 Regional Wind Resource Information       25 (4)
        3.2.1 Wind Resource Maps                   25 (1)
        3.2.2 Wind Measurements                    26 (3)
      3.3 Field Surveys                            29 (1)
      3.4 Tower Placement                          30 (3)
        3.4.1 Dedicated Towers                     31 (2)
        3.4.2 Existing Multi-Use Tall Towers       33 (1)
      3.5 Permitting for Wind Monitoring           33 (1)
      3.6 Land Lease Agreements                    34 (1)
      3.7 Questions for Discussion                 35 (2)
        Suggestions for Further Reading            36 (1)
    4 Monitoring Station Instrumentation and       37 (24)
    Measurements
      4.1 Basic Measurements                       37 (8)
        4.1.1 Horizontal Wind Speed                37 (5)
        4.1.2 Wind Direction                       42 (2)
        4.1.3 Air Temperature                      44 (1)
      4.2 Additional Measurements                  45 (4)
        4.2.1 Vertical Wind Speed                  45 (2)
        4.2.2 Heated Anemometers                   47 (1)
        4.2.3 Delta Temperature                    47 (1)
        4.2.4 Barometric Pressure                  47 (1)
        4.2.5 Relative Humidity                    48 (1)
        4.2.6 Global Solar Radiation               49 (1)
      4.3 Recorded Parameters and Sampling         49 (1)
      Intervals
        4.3.1 Average                              49 (1)
        4.3.2 Standard Deviation                   50 (1)
        4.3.3 Maximum and Minimum                  50 (1)
      4.4 Data Loggers                             50 (1)
      4.5 Data Storage Devices                     51 (1)
        4.5.1 Data Processing and Storage          52 (1)
        4.5.2 Storage Devices                      52 (1)
      4.6 Data Transfer Equipment                  52 (3)
        4.6.1 Manual Data Transfer                 53 (1)
        4.6.2 Remote Data Transfer                 54 (1)
      4.7 Power Sources                            55 (1)
        4.7.1 Household Batteries                  55 (1)
        4.7.2 Solar Battery Systems                55 (1)
        4.7.3 AC Power                             55 (1)
        4.7.4 Other Power Options                  56 (1)
      4.8 Towers and Sensor Support Hardware       56 (1)
        4.8.1 Towers                               56 (1)
        4.8.2 Sensor Support Hardware              57 (1)
      4.9 Wiring                                   57 (1)
      4.10 Measurement System Accuracy and         58 (1)
      Reliability
        4.10.1 Accuracy                            58 (1)
        4.10.2 Reliability                         59 (1)
      4.11 Questions for Review and Discussion     59 (2)
        References                                 60 (1)
        Suggestions for Further Reading            60 (1)
    5 Installation of Monitoring Stations          61 (26)
      5.1 Equipment Procurement                    61 (1)
      5.2 Equipment Acceptance Testing and         62 (2)
      Field Preparation
        5.2.1 Acceptance Testing                   62 (1)
        5.2.2 Field Preparation Procedures         63 (1)
      5.3 Installation Team                        64 (1)
      5.4 Safety                                   64 (1)
      5.5 Determination of True North              65 (1)
      5.6 Tower Installation                       66 (4)
        5.6.1 New Tilt-Up Towers                   66 (3)
        5.6.2 New Lattice Towers                   69 (1)
        5.6.3 Existing Towers                      69 (1)
      5.7 Sensor and Equipment Installation        70 (10)
        5.7.1 Anemometers                          70 (5)
        5.7.2 Wind Vanes                           75 (1)
        5.7.3 Temperature and Other Sensors        76 (1)
        5.7.4 Data Loggers and Associated          76 (1)
        Hardware
        5.7.5 Sensor Connections and Cabling       77 (1)
        5.7.6 Grounding and Lightning Protection   77 (3)
      5.8 Site Commissioning                       80 (1)
      5.9 Documentation                            81 (1)
      5.10 Cost and Labor Estimates                81 (3)
      5.11 Questions for Discussion                84 (3)
        Suggestions for Further Reading            85 (2)
    6 Station Operation and Maintenance            87 (12)
      6.1 Site Visits                              88 (1)
      6.2 Operation and Maintenance Procedures     88 (4)
        6.2.1 Project Description and Operation    88 (1)
        and Maintenance Philosophy
        6.2.2 System Component Descriptions        88 (1)
        6.2.3 Routine Instrument Care              89 (1)
        Instructions
        6.2.4 Site Visit Procedures                90 (2)
      6.3 Documentation                            92 (1)
      6.4 Spare Parts Inventory                    93 (1)
      6.5 Questions for Discussion                 93 (6)
    7 Data Collection and Handling                 99 (6)
      7.1 Raw Data Storage                         99 (2)
        7.1.1 Data Storage Types                   100(1)
        7.1.2 Data Storage Capacity                100(1)
      7.2 Data Retrieval                           101(1)
      7.3 Data Retrieval Frequency                 101(1)
      7.4 Data Protection and Storage              101(1)
        7.4.1 Data Logger                          101(1)
        7.4.2 Computer Hardware                    102(1)
        7.4.3 Data Handling Procedures             102(1)
      7.5 Documentation                            102(1)
      7.6 Questions for Discussion                 103(2)
    8 Ground-Based Remote Sensing Systems          105(10)
      8.1 Sodar                                    106(2)
      8.2 Lidar                                    108(1)
      8.3 Remote Sensing Campaign Design and       109(1)
      Siting
      8.4 Data Collection and Processing           110(1)
      8.5 Comparisons with Conventional            111(2)
      Anemometry
        8.5.1 Beam Tilt (Sodar)                    111(1)
        8.5.2 Vector to Scalar Wind Speed          112(1)
        Conversion (Sodar and Lidar)
        8.5.3 Environmental Conditions (Lidar)     112(1)
        8.5.4 Turbulence Intensity and             112(1)
        Anemometer Overspeeding (Sodar and
        Lidar)
        8.5.5 Flow Inclination and Complex         113(1)
        Terrain (Sodar and Lidar)
        8.5.6 Volume Averaging (Sodar and Lidar)   113(1)
        8.5.7 Distance from Reference Mast         113(1)
      8.6 Questions for Discussion                 113(2)
        Suggestions for Further Reading            114(1)
  PART 2 Data Analysis and Resource Assessment     115(145)
    9 Data Validation                              117(13)
      9.1 Data Conversion                          118(1)
      9.2 Data Validation                          119(6)
        9.2.1 Validation Routines                  120(4)
        9.2.2 Treatment of Suspect Data            124(1)
      9.3 Post-Validation Adjustments              125(2)
        9.3.1 Tower Effects                        125(1)
        9.3.2 Turbulence                           126(1)
        9.3.3 Inclined Flow                        126(1)
      9.4 Data Substitution and Averaging          127(1)
        9.4.1 Data Substitution                    127(1)
        9.4.2 Data Averaging                       128(1)
      9.5 Questions for Discussion                 128(2)
        References                                 129(1)
        Suggestions for Further Reading            129(1)
    10 Characterizing the Observed Wind Resource   130(13)
      10.1 Summarizing the Observed Wind           130(11)
      Resource
        10.1.1 Data Recovery                       131(1)
        10.1.2 Mean and Annualized Mean Wind       131(3)
        Speeds
        10.1.3 Wind Shear                          134(2)
        10.1.4 Turbulence Intensity                136(1)
        10.1.5 Wind Power Density                  137(1)
        10.1.6 Air Density                         137(1)
        10.1.7 Speed Frequency Distribution and    138(1)
        Weibull Parameters
        10.1.8 Wind Rose                           139(2)
      10.2 Questions for Discussion                141(2)
        Suggestions for Further Reading            142(1)
    11 Estimating the Resource at Hub Height       143(12)
      11.1 Wind Speed                              143(7)
        11.1.1 Direct Measurement                  144(2)
        11.1.2 Displacement Height                 146(1)
        11.1.3 Convergence Height                  147(1)
        11.1.4 Logarithmic Method                  148(2)
      11.2 Time-Varying Speeds and Speed           150(1)
      Distributions
      11.3 Other Parameters                        151(1)
        11.3.1 Wind Direction                      151(1)
        11.3.2 Air Density                         152(1)
        11.3.3 Turbulence Intensity                152(1)
      11.4 Questions for Discussion                152(3)
        Reference                                  154(1)
        Suggestions for Further Reading            154(1)
    12 The Climate Adjustment Process              155(23)
      12.1 Is the Wind Climate Stable?             156(3)
        12.1.1 Historical Evidence                 157(1)
        12.1.2 Prospects for Change in the         158(1)
        Future
        12.1.3 Other Factors That May Affect       159(1)
        the Local Wind Climate
      12.2 Requirements for Accurate MCP           159(7)
        12.2.1 Correlation                         160(2)
        12.2.2 Homogeneous Wind Speed              162(4)
        Observations
      12.3 Sources of Reference Data               166(4)
        12.3.1 Tall Towers Instrumented for        166(1)
        Wind Resource Assessment
        12.3.2 Surface Weather Stations            167(1)
        12.3.3 Rawinsonde Stations                 167(2)
        12.3.4 Modeled Data Sets                   169(1)
      12.4 The Target-Reference Relationship       170(4)
        12.4.1 Data Binning                        171(1)
        12.4.2 Fitting Methods                     171(1)
        12.4.3 Predicting the Speed Distribution   172(1)
        12.4.4 Direction and Other Parameters      173(1)
        12.4.5 Summary                             173(1)
      12.5 Questions for Discussion                174(4)
        References                                 176(1)
        Suggestions for Further Reading            176(2)
    13 Wind Flow Modeling                          178(17)
      13.1 Types of Wind Flow Models               179(10)
        13.1.1 Conceptual Models                   179(1)
        13.1.2 Experimental Models                 179(1)
        13.1.3 Statistical Models                  180(2)
        13.1.4 Numerical Wind Flow Models          182(7)
      13.2 Application of Numerical Wind Flow      189(2)
      Models
        13.2.1 Topographic Data                    189(1)
        13.2.2 Land Cover Data                     189(1)
        13.2.3 Mast Number and Placement           190(1)
        13.2.4 Adjustments to Multiple Masts       191(1)
      13.3 Questions for Discussion                191(4)
        References                                 192(1)
        Suggestions for Further Reading            193(2)
    14 Offshore Resource Assessment                195(25)
      14.1 Nature of the Offshore Wind             197(4)
      Environment
      14.2 Wind Resource Monitoring Systems        201(11)
        14.2.1 Purpose-Built Meteorological        202(3)
        Towers
        14.2.2 Surface-Based Remote Sensing        205(3)
        Systems
        14.2.3 Using Existing Offshore             208(1)
        Structures
        14.2.4 Weather Buoys                       209(1)
        14.2.5 Data Logging and Communications     210(1)
        Systems
        14.2.6 Power Supply                        211(1)
      14.3 Operations and Maintenance of           212(1)
      Offshore Systems
        14.3.1 Site Visits                         212(1)
        14.3.2 Operations and Maintenance          212(1)
        Procedures
      14.4 Satellite-Based Microwave Sensors       213(7)
        14.4.1 Types of Sensors                    214(2)
        14.4.2 Wind Resource Assessment Using      216(2)
        Satellite-Based Microwave Sensors
        References                                 218(1)
        Suggestions for Further Reading            219(1)
    15 Uncertainty in Wind Resource Assessment     220(13)
      15.1 Measurement Uncertainty                 221(1)
      15.2 Historical Wind Resource                221(2)
      15.3 Future Wind Resource                    223(1)
      15.4 Wind Shear                              224(1)
      15.5 Wind Flow Modeling Uncertainty          225(1)
      15.6 Combining Uncertainties                 226(4)
      15.7 Questions for Discussion                230(3)
        References                                 232(1)
        Suggestions for Further Reading            232(1)
    16 Plant Design and Energy Production          233(27)
    Estimation
      16.1 Plant Design Software                   233(2)
      16.2 Setting up the Project                  235(2)
      16.3 Wind Resource Data                      237(2)
        16.3.1 Wind Resource Measurements          238(1)
        16.3.2 Modeled Wind Resource Grids         239(1)
      16.4 Selecting a Turbine                     239(4)
      16.5 Designing and Optimizing a Turbine      243(1)
      Layout
      16.6 Gross and Net Energy Production         244(4)
        16.6.1 Wake Effects                        246(1)
        16.6.2 Downtime                            246(1)
        16.6.3 Electrical Losses                   247(1)
        16.6.4 Turbine Performance                 247(1)
        16.6.5 Environmental Losses                247(1)
        16.6.6 Curtailments                        247(1)
      16.7 Special Topics                          248(8)
        16.7.1 Extrapolating the Wind Resource     248(1)
        from Mast to Turbine
        16.7.2 Using Multiple Masts                249(1)
        16.7.3 Wake Modeling                       250(6)
      16.8 Questions for Discussion                256(4)
        References                                 258(1)
        Suggestions for Further Reading            258(2)
  Appendix A Wind Resource Assessment Equipment    260(3)
  Vendors
      Wind Resource Assessment Equipment           261(2)
  Appendix B Selected Source of GIS Data           263(2)
      Sources of GIS Data Related to Wind          263(2)
      Resource Assessment
Index                                              265